{"id":28056,"date":"2021-03-08T13:00:12","date_gmt":"2021-03-08T13:00:12","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/toposuranos.com\/material\/?p=28056"},"modified":"2024-08-18T09:35:56","modified_gmt":"2024-08-18T09:35:56","slug":"semantic-consequence-and-equivalence","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/toposuranos.com\/material\/en\/semantic-consequence-and-equivalence\/","title":{"rendered":"Semantic Consequence and Equivalence"},"content":{"rendered":"<div style=\"background-color:#F3F3F3; padding:20px;\">\n<center><\/p>\n<h1>Semantic Consequence and Equivalence<\/h1>\n<p><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align:center;\"><strong>SUMMARY<\/strong><br \/><em>In this class, we will study Semantic Consequence and Equivalence in propositional logic, which is a natural continuation of what we have previously covered. We will learn how to derive the notion of semantic consequence from truth value assignments and how this idea relates to the deduction theorem. Additionally, we will see practical examples of using truth tables to obtain useful properties such as Conjunction Elimination and Disjunction Introduction. We will also explore the notion of Semantic Equivalence and see how it relates to properties we already know. Finally, we will show how using models and deduction techniques can simplify the study of problems of consequence and semantic equivalence.<\/em><\/p>\n<p><\/center><br \/>\n<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align:center;\"><strong>LEARNING OBJECTIVES:<\/strong><br \/>\nBy the end of this class, the student will be able to:\n<\/p>\n<ol>\n<li><strong>Understand<\/strong> the notion of semantic consequence.<\/li>\n<li><strong>Understand<\/strong> the different interpretations of the symbol \u22a8.<\/li>\n<li><strong>Understand<\/strong> the proof of the deduction theorem in its semantic version and its use in the study of consequence and semantic equivalence.<\/li>\n<li><strong>Understand<\/strong> the definition of semantic equivalence and its relation to truth values.<\/li>\n<li><strong>Apply<\/strong> the deduction theorem in its semantic version to transform consequence problems into validity problems.<\/li>\n<li><strong>Apply<\/strong> useful properties in the use of truth tables to demonstrate semantic equivalences.<\/li>\n<li><strong>Apply<\/strong> the laws of absorption, distribution, and DeMorgan in the simplification of complex expressions.<\/li>\n<li><strong>Analyze<\/strong> the relationship between models and deductions in the study of propositional logic.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<p style=\"text-align:center;\"><strong>INDEX<\/strong><br \/>\n<a href=\"#1\">ASSIGNMENTS AND MODELS<\/a><br \/>\n<a href=\"#2\">THE DEDUCTION THEOREM (SEMANTIC VERSION)<\/a><br \/>\n<a href=\"#3\">USING THE DEDUCTION THEOREM IN THE STUDY OF CONSEQUENCE AND SEMANTIC EQUIVALENCE<\/a><br \/>\n<a href=\"#4\">SEMANTIC EQUIVALENCE AND PROPERTIES<\/a><br \/>\n<a href=\"#5\">SYNTHESIS<\/a><\/p>\n<p><center><iframe class=\"lazyload\" width=\"560\" height=\"315\" data-src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/vjkzDxbG8LY\" frameborder=\"0\" allow=\"accelerometer; autoplay; clipboard-write; encrypted-media; gyroscope; picture-in-picture\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/center>\n<\/div>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify; color: #000000;\">The study of Semantic Consequence and Equivalence is a natural continuation of what we have done when reviewing <a href=\"https:\/\/toposuranos.com\/semantica-de-la-logica-proposicional\/\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">the semantics of propositional logic<\/a>. Now we will review how the notion of semantic consequence is derived from truth value assignments, and how a semantic version of the <a href=\"https:\/\/toposuranos.com\/tecnicas-deduccion-logica-proposicional\/\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">deduction theorem<\/a> naturally emerges from this. Practical examples of using truth tables to obtain some useful properties will be shown. You can also see all of this on the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=vjkzDxbG8LY\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">YouTube channel.<\/a><\/p>\n<p><a name=\"1\"><\/a><\/p>\n<h2>Assignments and Models<\/h2>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify; color: #000000;\">First, let&#8217;s start with a definition that is crucial for the developments we will see in this post, that of semantic consequence.<\/p>\n<table>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"text-align: justify; color: #000000;\"><span style=\"color: #880000;\"><strong>DEFINITION:<\/strong><\/span> An expression <span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">G<\/span> is a <strong>(semantic) consequence<\/strong> of another expression <span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">F<\/span> if for every assignment <span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">\\mathcal{A}<\/span> it holds that<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: center; color: #000000;\"><span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">\\mathcal{A}\\models F \\Rightarrow \\mathcal{A}\\models G<\/span>\n<p>This is represented by writing <span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">F\\models G<\/span> and is read as \u00abthe expression <span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">F<\/span> models the expression <span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">G<\/span>\u00bb or \u00ab<span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">G<\/span> is a (semantic) consequence of <span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">F<\/span>.\u00bb<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify; color: #000000;\">With this definition in hand, we must note that the symbol <span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">\\models<\/span> actually has several different readings depending on the context:<\/p>\n<ul style=\"text-align: justify; color: #000000;\">\n<li><span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">\\mathcal{A} \\models F<\/span> means that <span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">\\mathcal{A}(F) = 1<\/span>; that is, that \u00ab<span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">\\mathcal{A}<\/span> models <span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">F<\/span>.\u00bb<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">G \\models F<\/span> means that if any assignment models <span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">G<\/span>, then it models <span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">F<\/span>, and we read this as \u00ab<span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">F<\/span> is a consequence of <span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">G<\/span>.\u00bb<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">\\models F<\/span> means that <span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">F<\/span> holds under any assignment; that is, that <span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">F<\/span> is a tautology.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify; color: #000000;\">Thus, although the symbol <span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">\\models<\/span> can have many interpretations, the context is not ambiguous.<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify; color: #000000;\">The notion of (semantic) consequence is close to the notion of \u00abimplication\u00bb that we have previously reviewed, in the sense that if <span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">F\\models G<\/span> holds, then <span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">\\models (F\\rightarrow G)<\/span>. In fact, this is very similar to the deduction theorem we saw several classes ago.<\/p>\n<p><a name=\"2\"><\/a><\/p>\n<h2>The Deduction Theorem (Semantic Version)<\/h2>\n<p><strong><span style=\"color: #000000;\">[<a href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=vjkzDxbG8LY&amp;t=444s\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span style=\"color: #ff0000;\">see<\/span><\/a>]<\/span><\/strong><\/p>\n<table style=\"color: #000000;\">\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"color: #aa0000;\"><strong>THEOREM:<\/strong><\/span> If <span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">F<\/span> and <span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">G<\/span> are any expressions, then it holds that<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\"><span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\"> F\\models G \\Leftrightarrow \\models (F\\rightarrow G) <\/span>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"color: #0000aa;\"><strong>Proof:<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">The proof of this theorem is easily obtained by observing the truth tables<\/p>\n<table>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"text-align: center; background-color: #dddddd;\"><span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">F<\/span><\/td>\n<td style=\"text-align: center; background-color: #dddddd;\"><span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">G<\/span><\/td>\n<td style=\"text-align: center; background-color: #dddddd;\"><span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">\\neg F<\/span><\/td>\n<td style=\"text-align: center; background-color: #dddddd;\"><span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">(F\\rightarrow G):=(\\neg F \\vee G)<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"text-align: center;\"><span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">0<\/span><\/td>\n<td style=\"text-align: center;\"><span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">0<\/span><\/td>\n<td style=\"text-align: center;\"><span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">1<\/span><\/td>\n<td style=\"text-align: center;\"><span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">1<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"text-align: center;\"><span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">0<\/span><\/td>\n<td style=\"text-align: center;\"><span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">1<\/span><\/td>\n<td style=\"text-align: center;\"><span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">1<\/span><\/td>\n<td style=\"text-align: center;\"><span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">1<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"text-align: center;\"><span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">1<\/span><\/td>\n<td style=\"text-align: center;\"><span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">0<\/span><\/td>\n<td style=\"text-align: center;\"><span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">0<\/span><\/td>\n<td style=\"text-align: center;\"><span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">0<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"text-align: center;\"><span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">1<\/span><\/td>\n<td style=\"text-align: center;\"><span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">1<\/span><\/td>\n<td style=\"text-align: center;\"><span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">0<\/span><\/td>\n<td style=\"text-align: center;\"><span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">1<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">If we focus on the meaning of <span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">F\\models G<\/span>, we will see that this is equivalent to saying that <span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">\\mathcal{A}\\models F \\Rightarrow \\mathcal{A}\\models G<\/span>, which in turn is the same as saying that <span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">\\mathcal{A}\\not\\models F \\vee \\mathcal{A}\\models G<\/span>. Now, if we notice that also <span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">\\mathcal{A}\\not\\models F<\/span> is exactly the same as <span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">\\mathcal{A}\\models \\neg F<\/span>, then <span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">F\\models G<\/span> is equivalent to saying that <span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">\\mathcal{A} \\models \\neg F \\vee \\mathcal{A}\\models G<\/span>. Now, if we make a truth table for <span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">F \\rightarrow G<\/span> and mark in <span style=\"color: #008800;\"><strong>green<\/strong><\/span> the region where <span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">\\mathcal{A} \\models \\neg F \\vee \\mathcal{A}\\models G<\/span> holds, we will see the following:<\/p>\n<table>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"text-align: center; background-color: #dddddd;\"><span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">F<\/span><\/td>\n<td style=\"text-align: center; background-color: #dddddd;\"><span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">G<\/span><\/td>\n<td style=\"text-align: center; background-color: #dddddd;\"><span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">\\neg F<\/span><\/td>\n<td style=\"text-align: center; background-color: #dddddd;\"><span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">(F\\rightarrow G):=(\\neg F \\vee G)<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"text-align: center;\"><span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">0<\/span><\/td>\n<td style=\"text-align: center; background-color: #008800; color: #ffffff;\"><span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">0<\/span><\/td>\n<td style=\"text-align: center; background-color: #008800; color: #ffffff;\"><span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">1<\/span><\/td>\n<td style=\"text-align: center;\"><span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">1<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"text-align: center;\"><span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">0<\/span><\/td>\n<td style=\"text-align: center; background-color: #008800; color: #ffffff;\"><span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">1<\/span><\/td>\n<td style=\"text-align: center; background-color: #008800; color: #ffffff;\"><span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">1<\/span><\/td>\n<td style=\"text-align: center;\"><span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">1<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"text-align: center;\"><span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">1<\/span><\/td>\n<td style=\"text-align: center;\"><span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">0<\/span><\/td>\n<td style=\"text-align: center;\"><span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">0<\/span><\/td>\n<td style=\"text-align: center;\"><span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">0<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"text-align: center;\"><span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">1<\/span><\/td>\n<td style=\"text-align: center; background-color: #008800; color: #ffffff;\"><span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">1<\/span><\/td>\n<td style=\"text-align: center; background-color: #008800; color: #ffffff;\"><span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">0<\/span><\/td>\n<td style=\"text-align: center;\"><span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">1<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify; color: #000000;\">From this, we have that when <span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">F\\models G<\/span>, it always happens that <span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">\\models (F \\rightarrow G)<\/span> and vice versa, which is nothing more than the deduction theorem and its converse in the semantic version.<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify; color: #000000;\">Let&#8217;s suppose we want to know if an expression <span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">G<\/span> is a consequence of another expression <span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">F<\/span>. We will refer to this as the <strong>consequence problem.<\/strong> Using the previous theorem, this problem can be transformed into a <strong>validity problem,<\/strong> because \u00ab<span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">G<\/span> is a consequence of <span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">F<\/span> if and only if <span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">(F\\rightarrow G)<\/span> is a theorem\u00bb.<\/p>\n<p><a name=\"3\"><\/a><\/p>\n<h2>Using the Deduction Theorem in the Study of Consequence and Semantic Equivalence<\/h2>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify; color: #000000;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=vjkzDxbG8LY&amp;t=796s\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><strong><span style=\"color: #ff0000;\">From the truth tables<\/span><\/strong><\/a>, some properties can be inferred that resemble some seen in the past.<\/p>\n<table style=\"color: #000000;\">\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td colspan=\"2\" style=\"text-align: justify;\"><strong><span style=\"color: #000088;\">EXAMPLE<\/span><\/strong>: Show using truth tables that the following properties hold<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Conjunction Elimination:<\/td>\n<td><span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">(F\\wedge G)\\models F<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Disjunction Introduction:<\/td>\n<td><span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">F\\models (F\\vee G)<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Contradiction:<\/td>\n<td><span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">(F\\wedge\\neg F)\\models G<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td colspan=\"2\"><span style=\"color: #008800;\"><strong>Solution:<\/strong><\/span><span style=\"color: #000000;\"> Using the deduction theorem that we just reviewed, we can transform the consequence problem into a validity problem.<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify; color: #000000;\">To solve <strong>Conjunction Elimination,<\/strong> we can make the following truth table<\/p>\n<table style=\"color: #000000;\">\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"text-align: center; background-color: #bbbbbb;\"><span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">F<\/span><\/td>\n<td style=\"text-align: center; background-color: #bbbbbb;\"><span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">G<\/span><\/td>\n<td style=\"text-align: center; background-color: #bbbbbb;\"><span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">(F\\wedge G)<\/span><\/td>\n<td style=\"text-align: center; background-color: #bbbbbb;\"><span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">((F\\wedge G) \\rightarrow F)<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"text-align: center;\"><span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">0<\/span><\/td>\n<td style=\"text-align: center;\"><span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">0<\/span><\/td>\n<td style=\"text-align: center;\"><span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">0<\/span><\/td>\n<td style=\"text-align: center; background-color: #dddd00;\"><span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">1<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"text-align: center;\"><span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">0<\/span><\/td>\n<td style=\"text-align: center;\"><span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">1<\/span><\/td>\n<td style=\"text-align: center;\"><span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">0<\/span><\/td>\n<td style=\"text-align: center; background-color: #dddd00;\"><span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">1<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"text-align: center;\"><span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">1<\/span><\/td>\n<td style=\"text-align: center;\"><span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">0<\/span><\/td>\n<td style=\"text-align: center;\"><span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">0<\/span><\/td>\n<td style=\"text-align: center; background-color: #dddd00;\"><span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">1<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"text-align: center;\"><span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">1<\/span><\/td>\n<td style=\"text-align: center;\"><span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">1<\/span><\/td>\n<td style=\"text-align: center;\"><span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">1<\/span><\/td>\n<td style=\"text-align: center; background-color: #dddd00;\"><span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">1<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify; color: #000000;\">With this, we demonstrate that <span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">((F\\wedge G)\\rightarrow F)<\/span> is a tautology and, therefore, following the converse of the deduction theorem, we obtain that <span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">(F\\wedge G) \\models F<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify; color: #000000;\"><strong>Disjunction Introduction<\/strong> is solved similarly by constructing an appropriate truth table<\/p>\n<table style=\"color: #000000;\">\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"text-align: center; background-color: #bbbbbb;\"><span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">F<\/span><\/td>\n<td style=\"text-align: center; background-color: #bbbbbb;\"><span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">G<\/span><\/td>\n<td style=\"text-align: center; background-color: #bbbbbb;\"><span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">(F\\vee G)<\/span><\/td>\n<td style=\"text-align: center; background-color: #bbbbbb;\"><span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">(F\\rightarrow(F\\vee G))<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"text-align: center;\"><span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">0<\/span><\/td>\n<td style=\"text-align: center;\"><span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">0<\/span><\/td>\n<td style=\"text-align: center;\"><span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">0<\/span><\/td>\n<td style=\"text-align: center; background-color: #dddd00;\"><span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">1<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"text-align: center;\"><span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">0<\/span><\/td>\n<td style=\"text-align: center;\"><span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">1<\/span><\/td>\n<td style=\"text-align: center;\"><span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">1<\/span><\/td>\n<td style=\"text-align: center; background-color: #dddd00;\"><span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">1<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"text-align: center;\"><span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">1<\/span><\/td>\n<td style=\"text-align: center;\"><span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">0<\/span><\/td>\n<td style=\"text-align: center;\"><span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">1<\/span><\/td>\n<td style=\"text-align: center; background-color: #dddd00;\"><span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">1<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"text-align: center;\"><span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">1<\/span><\/td>\n<td style=\"text-align: center;\"><span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">1<\/span><\/td>\n<td style=\"text-align: center;\"><span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">1<\/span><\/td>\n<td style=\"text-align: center; background-color: #dddd00;\"><span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">1<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify; color: #000000;\">Here we observe that <span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">(F\\rightarrow (F\\vee G))<\/span> is a tautology and, therefore, by the converse of the deduction theorem, we have that <span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">F\\models (F\\vee G)<\/span>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify; color: #000000;\">And finally, the property of <strong>Contradiction<\/strong> is demonstrated using the same method<\/p>\n<table style=\"color: #000000;\">\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"text-align: center; background-color: #bbbbbb;\"><span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">F<\/span><\/td>\n<td style=\"text-align: center; background-color: #bbbbbb;\"><span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">\\neg F<\/span><\/td>\n<td style=\"text-align: center; background-color: #bbbbbb;\"><span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">(F\\wedge \\neg F)<\/span><\/td>\n<td style=\"text-align: center; background-color: #bbbbbb;\"><span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">G<\/span><\/td>\n<td style=\"text-align: center; background-color: #bbbbbb;\"><span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">((F\\wedge \\neg F)\\rightarrow G)<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"text-align: center;\"><span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">0<\/span><\/td>\n<td style=\"text-align: center;\"><span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">1<\/span><\/td>\n<td style=\"text-align: center;\"><span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">0<\/span><\/td>\n<td style=\"text-align: center;\"><span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">0<\/span><\/td>\n<td style=\"text-align: center; background-color: #dddd00;\"><span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">1<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"text-align: center;\"><span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">0<\/span><\/td>\n<td style=\"text-align: center;\"><span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">1<\/span><\/td>\n<td style=\"text-align: center;\"><span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">0<\/span><\/td>\n<td style=\"text-align: center;\"><span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">1<\/span><\/td>\n<td style=\"text-align: center; background-color: #dddd00;\"><span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">1<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"text-align: center;\"><span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">1<\/span><\/td>\n<td style=\"text-align: center;\"><span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">0<\/span><\/td>\n<td style=\"text-align: center;\"><span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">0<\/span><\/td>\n<td style=\"text-align: center;\"><span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">0<\/span><\/td>\n<td style=\"text-align: center; background-color: #dddd00;\"><span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">1<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"text-align: center;\"><span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">1<\/span><\/td>\n<td style=\"text-align: center;\"><span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">0<\/span><\/td>\n<td style=\"text-align: center;\"><span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">0<\/span><\/td>\n<td style=\"text-align: center;\"><span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">1<\/span><\/td>\n<td style=\"text-align: center; background-color: #dddd00;\"><span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">1<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify; color: #000000;\">With this truth table, we have demonstrated that <span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">((F\\wedge \\neg F)\\rightarrow G)<\/span> is a tautology and, therefore, by the converse of the deduction theorem, we have that <span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">(F\\wedge \\neg F)\\models G<\/span>.<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<p><a name=\"4\"><\/a><\/p>\n<h2>Semantic Equivalence and Properties<\/h2>\n<p><span style=\"color: #000000;\"><strong>[<a href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=vjkzDxbG8LY&amp;t=1058s\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span style=\"color: #ff0000;\">see<\/span><\/a>]<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n<table style=\"color: #000000;\">\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"text-align: justify; color: #000000;\"><span style=\"color: #880000;\"><strong>DEFINITION:<\/strong><\/span> If both <span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">F\\models G<\/span> and <span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">G\\models F<\/span> occur at the same time, then <span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">F<\/span> and <span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">G<\/span> are said to be <strong>semantically equivalent<\/strong> to each other. This is represented by writing <span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">F\\equiv G<\/span>.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify; color: #000000;\"><strong>As a consequence of this definition, two expressions are semantically equivalent if and only if they have the same truth values.<\/strong><\/p>\n<table style=\"color: #000000;\">\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"text-align: justify;\"><strong><span style=\"color: #000088;\">EXAMPLE:<\/span><\/strong> It can be shown using truth tables that the following <strong>symmetry semantic equivalences<\/strong> hold.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"text-align: center;\"><span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">(F\\downarrow G) \\equiv (G\\downarrow F)<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"text-align: center;\"><span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">(F\\vee G) \\equiv (G\\vee F)<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"text-align: center;\"><span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">(F\\wedge G) \\equiv (G\\wedge F)<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"text-align: center;\"><span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">(F\\leftrightarrow G) \\equiv (G\\leftrightarrow F)<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"text-align: center;\"><span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">(F\\underline{\\vee} G) \\equiv (G\\underline{\\vee} F)<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<table style=\"color: #000000;\">\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"text-align: justify;\"><strong><span style=\"color: #000088;\">EXAMPLE:<\/span><\/strong> If <span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">F<\/span> is any expression, <span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">\\top<\/span> a tautology, and <span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">\\bot<\/span> a contradiction, then the following semantic equivalences can be proven using truth tables<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"text-align: center;\"><span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">(F\\wedge \\top) \\equiv F<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"text-align: center;\"><span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">(F\\vee \\top) \\equiv \\top<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"text-align: center;\"><span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">(F\\wedge \\bot) \\equiv \\bot<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"text-align: center;\"><span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">(F\\vee \\bot) \\equiv F<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"text-align: justify;\">These equivalences are known as <strong>absorption laws.<\/strong><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<table style=\"color: #000000;\">\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"text-align: justify;\"><strong><span style=\"color: #000088;\">EXAMPLE:<\/span><\/strong> In the semantics of propositional logic, the distribution equivalences of conjunction and disjunction also hold.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"text-align: center;\"><span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">(F\\wedge (G\\vee H)) \\equiv ((F\\wedge G) \\vee (F\\wedge H))<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"text-align: center;\"><span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">(F\\vee (G\\wedge H)) \\equiv ((F\\vee G) \\wedge (F\\vee H))<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<table style=\"color: #000000;\">\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"text-align: justify;\"><strong><span style=\"color: #000088;\">EXAMPLE:<\/span><\/strong> In the semantics of propositional logic, DeMorgan&#8217;s Laws also hold.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"text-align: center;\"><span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">\\neg(F\\wedge G) \\equiv (\\neg F \\vee \\neg G)<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"text-align: center;\"><span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">\\neg(F\\vee G) \\equiv (\\neg F \\wedge \\neg G)<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<table style=\"color: #000000;\">\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"text-align: justify;\"><strong><span style=\"color: #880000;\">EXERCISE:<\/span><\/strong> A good exercise is to prove using truth tables that the semantic equivalences of the Absorption, Distributive, and DeMorgan&#8217;s Laws do indeed hold.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<table style=\"color: #000000;\">\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"text-align: justify;\"><strong><span style=\"color: #000088;\">EXAMPLE:<\/span><\/strong> Demonstrate using semantic equivalences that the following equivalence occurs:<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: center; color: #000000;\"><span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">((C\\wedge D) \\vee A) \\wedge (C\\wedge D) \\vee B) \\wedge (E \\vee \\neg E))\\equiv ((A\\wedge B)\\vee(C\\wedge D))<\/span>.<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"color: #000000;\"><span style=\"color: #008800;\"><strong>Solution:<\/strong><\/span> We can prove this equivalence using truth tables, but if we do this, we will have to deal with an expression with 5 propositional variables, and this implies making a truth table with <span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">2^5 = 32<\/span> rows, which would be ideal to avoid. To achieve this, we will use the equivalences we have already shown.<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify; color: #000000;\">First, note that <span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">(E\\vee \\neg E)<\/span> is a tautology. Let&#8217;s denote this tautology by <span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">\\top<\/span>. Then, using the absorption laws, we have<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: center; color: #000000;\"><span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">((C\\wedge D) \\vee A) \\wedge (C\\wedge D) \\vee B) \\wedge (E \\vee \\neg E)) \\equiv ((C\\wedge D) \\vee A) \\wedge (C\\wedge D) \\vee B)) <\/span>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify; color: #000000;\">Using the distribution laws, we obtain<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: center; color: #000000;\"><span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\"> ((C\\wedge D) \\vee A) \\wedge (C\\wedge D) \\vee B)) \\equiv ((C\\wedge D) \\vee (A\\wedge B))<\/span>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify; color: #000000;\">Finally, by symmetry<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: center; color: #000000;\"><span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\"> ((C\\wedge D) \\vee (A\\wedge B)) \\equiv ((A\\wedge B) \\vee (C\\wedge D))<\/span>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify; color: #000000;\">Therefore, following these equivalences, we have the equivalence<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: center; color: #000000;\"><span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">((C\\wedge D) \\vee A) \\wedge (C\\wedge D) \\vee B) \\wedge (E \\vee \\neg E)) \\equiv ((A\\wedge B) \\vee (C\\wedge D))<\/span>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify; color: #000000;\">which is what we wanted to prove.<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<p><a name=\"5\"><\/a><\/p>\n<h2>Synthesis<\/h2>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify; color: #000000;\">If we observe the development of this last example, we will see that, as the number of variables increases, the complexity of studying problems of consequence and semantic equivalence grows exponentially if we rely on truth tables. However, we have seen that from the development of the idea of a model, something analogous to the deduction techniques we have already studied in considerable detail emerges. This relationship between models and deductions is what we will see soon, and the combination of both will finally save us countless headaches in the study of logic.<a href=\"https:\/\/amzn.to\/3t6XASK\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><\/a><\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>Semantic Consequence and Equivalence SUMMARYIn this class, we will study Semantic Consequence and Equivalence in propositional logic, which is a natural continuation of what we have previously covered. We will learn how to derive the notion of semantic consequence from truth value assignments and how this idea relates to the deduction theorem. Additionally, we will [&hellip;]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":1,"featured_media":28055,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"closed","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"iawp_total_views":25,"footnotes":""},"categories":[605,567,619],"tags":[],"class_list":["post-28056","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","has-post-thumbnail","hentry","category-mathematical-logic","category-mathematics","category-propositional-logic"],"yoast_head":"<!-- This site is optimized with the Yoast SEO plugin v27.4 - https:\/\/yoast.com\/product\/yoast-seo-wordpress\/ -->\n<title>Semantic Consequence and Equivalence - toposuranos.com\/material<\/title>\n<meta name=\"description\" content=\"Learn about Semantic Consequence and Equivalence in propositional logic with practical examples. 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